Then we read newspaper headlines, such as in the Niugini Nius of 3 October 1989 ('Troops up in arms over politicians), and 16 October 1989 (Civilian shot death in Bougainville raid), and 27 October 1989 (Shooting puts peace in doubt) and 23 February 1989 (Soldiers in Panguna go looting).. And there is Charlie Andrews, telling Bougainvilleans that his army is good. Additionally landowners and politicians were assaulted, a prominent landowner’s wife was raped, and those left homeless by the destruction were placed in internment camps (called ‘care centres’ by the PNG government) where they were denied access to any outside visitors. The Bougainville Crisis: A South Pacific Crofters' War Alastair Mclntosh As Papua New Guinea (PNG) moves through its fifteenth year of indepen­ dence, this democratic Pacific island nation of 3.5 million people is in tur­ moil over social change, land rights and ecological disasters. Culture Mandala: The Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies. Beijing has recently increased its efforts to boost ties with island nations in the Pacific, establishing diplomatic ties with the Solomon Islands and Kiribati. ‘Ecocide, Industrial Chemical Contamination and the Corporate Profit Imperative: The Case of Bougainville’, Social Justice, 23(4), 109–125. Concerned by growing inequality, foreign exploitation, intra-community friction, environmental harm and poverty, the new PLA embarked upon a campaign of civil disobedience. Lasslett, K. (2009). Bougainville (/ ˈ b uː ɡ ən v ɪ l / BOO-gən-vil; Tok Pisin: Bogenvil), officially the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, is an autonomous region in Papua New Guinea.The largest island is Bougainville Island, while the region also includes Buka Island and a number of outlying islands and atolls. For the Australian government, the Bougainville crisis raised a number of concerns (see Lasslett 2012). Class Action Complaint for the Violations of the Alien Tort Claims Act. Bougainville Copper Limited (1988), Meeting Minutes, 18 November. Video Text 2. The Germans' first administrative centre was not established until 1905 - 21 years after their rule began. This it was hoped would split the rebels into disparate groups, thus allowing the PNGDF to pick them off one by one. BCL was profoundly disappointed with this decision. However, the BRA’s leadership was adamant, any permanent solution to the conflict would require: 1) The withdrawal of the government’s security forces from Bougainville; 2) The permanent closure of the mine; and 3) The holding of a referendum to decide the question of independence. ‘Papua New Guinea at Thirty: Late Decolonisation and the Political Economy of Nation-Building’, Third World Quarterly, 27(1), 161–173. ‘Winning Hearts and Mines: The Bougainville Crisis, 1988-90’, in Jackson, R., Murphy, E., and Poynting, S. Socialist Register 2000: Working Classes Global Realities, London: Merlin. The result was the Bougainville Peace Agreement (BPA), the creation in 2005 of the Autonomous Bougainville Government, and the promise of a non-binding referendum on independence. In that case, Bougainville would stay part of PNG and details would be worked out, People vote for independence and PNG accepts the vote. Retrieved 9 August 2015. (ed.) (1990). Bougainville Crisis (Papua New Guinea : 1988-) Sources. Sadly, no one has ever been charged or tried for the war crimes committed on Bougainville. Only then we will be able to save the lives of our people in Bougainville … Please be united and walk side by side. ‘The Politics of the Panguna Landowners’ Association’, in May, R. J. and Spriggs, M. Polomka, P. The Police Minister later boasted to parliament “bones rattled on the island” (National Parliament of PNG, Record of Proceedings, 14 March, 1990). Bougainville Perspectives on a Crisis, Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre. Ballentine, K. and Sherman, J. Available online. Following a large protest in April 1988, the PLA’s leaders handed BCL a letter which outlined their demands. Expecting a sympathetic ear, Cornelius was shocked to discover that the government in fact blamed BCL for the recent disturbances on Bougainville. As a result, they instructed a PNGDF officer, Leo Nuia, to prepare the PNGDF for a decisive assault on BRA strongholds. THE Bougainville crisis did not just happen. Memories of the Bougainville Crisis: Veronica Hatutasi’s ‘Behind the Blockade’ by Thiago Cintra Oppermann. And, .css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link{color:#3F3F42;}.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited{color:#696969;}.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited{font-weight:bolder;border-bottom:1px solid #BABABA;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;}.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link:hover,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited:hover,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link:focus,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited:focus{border-bottom-color:currentcolor;border-bottom-width:2px;color:#B80000;}@supports (text-underline-offset:0.25em){.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited{border-bottom:none;-webkit-text-decoration:underline #BABABA;text-decoration:underline #BABABA;-webkit-text-decoration-thickness:1px;text-decoration-thickness:1px;-webkit-text-decoration-skip-ink:none;text-decoration-skip-ink:none;text-underline-offset:0.25em;}.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link:hover,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited:hover,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:link:focus,.css-yidnqd-InlineLink:visited:focus{-webkit-text-decoration-color:currentcolor;text-decoration-color:currentcolor;-webkit-text-decoration-thickness:2px;text-decoration-thickness:2px;color:#B80000;}}according to referendum literature, "some parts of mountainous central and northern Bougainville had little contact with either churches or the colonial regime until after World War Two". The Referendum Commission is headed by former Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern, who helped to negotiate 1998 Good Friday Agreement as part of the Northern Ireland peace process. (2007), ‘The Dynamics of Papua New Guinea’s Democracy: An Essay’, Pacific Economic Bulletin, 22/1: 135–157. Indeed, many of the senior political figures who permitted and even applauded the atrocities, retained public office following the conflict. According to Regan (1996), the BRA began countering emerging loyalist sentiment through arrests, interrogation, torture and executions. Forget about your differences and struggle for only one goal: to save the lives of our future generations”. No one was exempted from the violence. Facing severe financial and logistic constraints the national government turned to the mine’s operator, Bougainville Copper Limited (BCL), and PNG’s principal international benefactor, Australia, to prop up the PNGDF. In response, the PLA decided to escalate their anti-mine activities. China is thought to already have sent a delegation to look at investing in Bougainville, including a new port. ‘Mining and Civil Conflict: Revisiting Grievance at Bougainville, Minerals’, Minerals & Energy - Raw Materials Report, 21(2), 23–35. Consequently, when customary landowners used industrial sabotage to close the mine in 1988, this regional dispute soon transformed into a major national crisis. It was no longer a land compensation issue nor a tribal conflict. Written by Thiago Cintra Oppermann. Using the defence aid supplied by Australia and BCL the PNGDF conducted a series of offensive operations during July and August 1989. Bougainville Provincial Government established in 1974 (Ghai and Regan 1992: 55–9), and disputes over its mine revenue share precipitated Bougainville’s attempted secession from PNG on 1 September 1975, just before PNG’s Independence Day. During this ‘law and order operation’ hundreds of homes were burnt to the ground by security forces, along with crops. The president-elect of Bougainville has thanked the region's voters for giving him the mandate to pursue independence from Papua New Guinea. From further afield, the US and China are also watching the developments closely. Opposition to mining development at the Bougainville mine in Papua New Guinea’s North Solomons Province was a major factor in the emergence of a secessionist movement on Bougainville in the late 1960s. This framework received a major boost when the military revolted against the national government’s plan to employ the private military company, Sandline International, during early 1997. BCL’s reaction to this proposal is documented in a memorandum penned by the company’s Chairman. A freedom fighter of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) who stopped Rio Tinto and its subsidiary Bougainville Copper Ltd (BCL) by blowing up the electric pylons at the Panguna mine in 1988. That night BCL’s Managing Director was awoken by a phone call from the company’s General Manager for Commercial, Ken Perry. This was the first election to be held after … This paved the way for the PNGDF to return to the island during September 1990. Bougainville. (2006). However it was ignored by both Australia and PNG. Ona, F. (1990) ‘Declaration of Independence – Republic of Bougainville’, in Polomka, P. A force that sprung out of nowhere was formed to protect their motherland. It says it will accept "any settlement negotiated", but most Bougainvilleans believe that Australia opposes independence. 1997 Sandline crisis I was in Grade 5 at the Port Moresby International Primary School and our teacher Peter Castle from Tasmania was in the middle of lessons when we heard loud gun fire. Fearing negative exposure, the national government banned the media from entering Bougainville. The government offered the moderates a generous peace settlement if they could persuade villagers to withdraw their support for the more radical PLA executive. As a result, while police mobile squads were dispatched and placed on security detail, the Prime Minister also elected to send a peace delegation to Bougainville in an effort to forge a mediated settlement to the crisis. (1997). The PNGDF, with assistance from the Australian Defence Force, instrumentalised these tensions – their plan was to exacerbate the growing divisions on Bougainville by continuing the blockade, and by engaging in psychological operations. The Bougainville Crisis . Accounting for Violence in Developing Countries, London: Hurst & Company. A senior PNGDF officer recalls: “We were not trained, we were not prepared, both in training and in our modus operandi. Lasslett, K. (2012). As internal tensions grew during 1990, the national government was able to activate its plan. Arnson, C. J. and Zartman, I. W. (2005) Rethinking the Economics of War: The Intersection of Need, Creed and Greed, Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Ogan, E. (1990). At this stage in the dispute BCL feared that the PLA was intending to alter the legal arrangements which governed the mining operation, using threats and emotive rhetoric. The International State Crime Initiative would like to thank the following contributors: Amanda King and Fabio Cavadini of Frontyard Films who provided excerpts from their documentary film, 'An Evergreen Island'. They believed this would set a destructive precedent, illustrating that force could produce results. However, it is clans who own the land which mining companies must access to extract the minerals and build essential facilities. Despite Francis Ona’s warning a declaration of emergency was issued by the government on 26 June 1989. Bougainville: Perspectives on a Crisis, Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre. Regan, A. J., and Griffin, H. M. While more broadly, the collapse of the PNG state would seriously damage Australia’s regional leadership aspirations, and provoke uncomfortable questions from important allies (principally the United States and Indonesia). © 2020 BBC. On Saturday, a new chapter will be written, when 207,000 people begin voting on whether they want greater autonomy or independence. The Bougainville Conflict: Origins and Development, Main “Actors”, and Strategies for its Resolution, Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea Faculty of Law. Following the declaration of emergency the PNGDF initiated a series of counterinsurgency operations which were designed to clear the mine area of civilians, thus undermining the BRA’s ability to operate in the mine vicinity. Having marshalled 500 PNGDF troops, 300 RPNGC mobile squad officers, and 100 Correctional Service officers, Colonel Nuia implements a major military offensive in January 1990 in a last ditch effort to nuetralise the rebels and reopen the mine (by this stage BCL’s cash reserves were seriously depleted). BCL’s Chairman was particularly alarmed at the deteriorating situation on the island. (eds.) (eds.) Perry informed Cornelius that at around 12:30am militants had initiated a campaign of arson, which had damaged BCL’s accounting office, executive guest house, and engineering drawing office (over the coming days the attacks became more focused on paralysing the mine’s power supply). Video, How Lewis Hamilton is helping make racing environmentally friendly, Fur-st Family: The long history of White House pets. London: Routledge. (eds.) Extra-judicial killings, forced displacement, the internment of civilians, and the denial of humanitarian aid, were just some of the egregious tactics employed by the military. The primary marker of that identity was dark skin colour - most Bougainvilleans have darker skin than most, though not all, people from elsewhere in PNG. Gillespie, R. (1996). Spain, Sweden and Switzerland confirm cases linked to the UK, as fears of the variant's spread grow. In the following case study you will be exposed to the calculations, relations, and decisions that led two democratic states and a major multinational mining corporation, to organise a systematic campaign of state violence that terrorised the residents of Bougainville for almost a decade. Video, Fur-st Family: The long history of White House pets, Coronavirus: More cases of new Covid variant found in Europe, Covid: Biden urges Trump to sign coronavirus bill into law. Standish, B. Similarly, Australia’s Foreign Minister, who presided over one of the least known but nonetheless egregious periods in Australia’s foreign policy history, went on to become the head of the International Crisis Group, a major international NGO committed to conflict prevention and resolution. Likewise, its population would be one of the world's smallest - slightly smaller than Pacific neighbour Vanuatu, and slightly bigger than Barbados. Even in the early days of the crisis, the prolonged and bloody nature of it could have been averted, but it was not. Last week the election results in Papua New Guinea’s autonomous region of Bougainville were announced. The Eyewitness Testimony of Marilyn Part 1, The Eyewitness Testimony of Marilyn Part 2. (eds.) Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing Peace in Bougainville. (2000). Documents an indigenous people who fight against a multinational mining company (Panguna copper mine) and government forces (PNG). Once again, the military used its entire arsenal – which included 81 mm mortars, M16s, M203s, M79s, and four Iroquois helicopters rigged with M60s – to bombard villages. May, R. J. In an effort to press the independence question the BRA stepped up its attacks on the mine during May 1989, forcing its closure. The executive’s aim was to level the social hierarchy that had formed on Bougainville, by expropriating both the mining company and the local elite who had monopolised land, compensation payments, and business opportunities. Available online. BBC. (eds.) The islands were named after an 18th Century French explorer and became part of a German colony, German New Guinea, at the end of the 19th Century. (eds.) According to a former District Commander of the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary (RPNGC): “Basically the mobile squad people are semi-military, they are aggressive, they don’t do what normal policeman do, they go in there and they beat a few heads in. Gold Coast, Queensland: Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Bond University. Geographically, Bougainville is the largest of the Solomon Islands, located near the northern end of that chain.Bougainville is 75 miles (120 km) long and 40–60 miles (65–95 km) wide. After the failed independence declaration, discontent simmered and in 1988 a nine-year separatist war began. The government’s new strategy was related to BCL by the new Minister of State. 2000peace agreement sets 2020 deadline for independence poll. Tanis, J. Without the Prime Minister’s consent, the Police Commissioner ordered the mobile squads to arrest PLA leaders, a move which violated an amnesty that had been granted to landowners by the national government. ), Contemporary State Terrorism: Theory and Practice. Amnesty International. Biden urges Trump to sign Covid bill into law, The casualties of viral conspiracy theories in 2020, .css-q4by3k-IconContainer{display:none;height:1em;width:1em;vertical-align:-0.125em;margin-right:0.25em;}playHow Lewis Hamilton is helping make racing environmentally friendly. Bernstein, H. (2000) ‘“The Peasantry” in Global Capitalism: Who, Where and Why?’, in Panitch, L. and Leys, C. Bougainville – Blood on our Hands: Australia’s Role in PNG’s War. Rogers, T. A. The central government has previously withheld funding for the referendum process, and its preference is for the region to remain within the country. Griffin, J. THE Bougainville Crisis was the biggest conflict fought on the soil of Papua New Guinea since World War II. Other researchers pointed out that even though journalists got into Bougainville during the crisis, the coverage was uneven (Cronau, 1994; Denoon & Spriggs, 1992). Despite lack of local support for the moderate landowner faction cobbled together earlier in the year, the agreement was scheduled to be signed on 11 September 1989, several days after the mine’s official re-opening. Dom Rotheroe who provided excerpts from his documentary film, 'A Coconut Revolution'. Under this agreement the rebels permitted the North Solomons to resume its constitutional status as a province of PNG in return for greater autonomy, and an option for a referendum to be held over independence within ten to fifteen years. loyalist) force. Memorandum to CRA Directors, 6 December 1988. The discovery of vast copper ore deposits in Bougainville's Crown Prince Range in 1969 led to the establishment of a huge copper mine by the Australian company Conzinc Rio Tinto. Okole, H. (1990). These conditions were unacceptable to the national government. The mine br… Much to the PLA’s disbelief, the inquiry concluded that “BCL has done good work” (BCL 1988). However, the BRA successfully shut the mine down just hours after its re-opening, while the peace agreement signing was stayed when a Provincial Minister involved in its construction was assassinated. Video clip synopsis – The story of how long-standing local opposition to a copper mine in Bougainville erupted into full-scale civil war. Believing that the law and order operation had demonstrated the government’s capacity to impose its authority, a meeting was called with moderate landowners opposed to Francis Ona. (2002). During Operation Footloose the BRA staged a significant counter-attack that surprised PNG’s security forces. Both Rabbie Namaliu (Prime Minister 1988-1992) and Michael Somare (Foreign Minister 1988-1992), for example, maintained senior roles in government, despite their support for the blockade and their failure to stop or even acknowledge the PNGDF’s war crimes (indeed Rabbie Namaliu is currently on BCL's Board of Directors). Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. The loyalist paramilitaries were arguably even more brutal than their state allies. While a class-action has been taken against BCL by the landowners, the company nonetheless remains hopeful of returning to the island. Historical dict. The guerrillas relay the belief that they fight to defend their independence and preserve the local environment on the island of Bougainville. However, the PNGDF lacked the operational capacity to undertake this extensive military campaign alone. The country is rich in natural resources - especially copper, which has been extracted on a large scale since the 1960s under Australian administration. Bathurst: Crawford House Press. Australia, the closest wealthy country, is Bougainville's biggest donor and was involved in the mediation that ended the fighting. Correspondence from Francis Ona to Rabbie Namaliu, 20 June 1989. A loyalist leader, Thomas Anis, claimed “we are fighting a civil war which involves arms, violence and psychological struggle for power – a warfare in which only the fittest will survive” (Post-Courier, 07/01/1991). Both organisations provided considerable assistance. of Papua New Guinea, 1994: p. 40-44. found: The Bougainville crisis : 1991 update, 1992. found: Britannica Macro. ‘In Between: Personal Experiences In the 9-Year Long War on Bougainville’. I am talking frankly, they will knock a few heads in, burn a few houses down, shoot a few pigs, shoot at cars … The mobile squads operated with a modus operandi of frightening people” (Personal Communication, 2006). BCL’s Managing Director immediately phoned key Ministers and organised an emergency meeting for the following morning. Between 1980 and 1987 the PLA helped landowners to increase their share of the benefits being generated by the mine (see Okole 1990). 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